STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
In this section, you are going to focus on:
1. Parts of Speech
Verbs
2. Compound Sentences
· Coordinate Conjunctions
3. Complex sentences with subordinate Conjunctions and Introductory Words
· Adverb Clause
· Noun Clause
4. Reduced Clauses
v Adjective Clause
v Adverb Clause
v Noun Clause
5. Comparison
Unit 1
Parts of Speech Verbs
Verb forms may be classified as follows:
Base Form | Infinitive | Gerund | Past Participle | Simple Past Form |
Start | To start | Starting | Started | Started |
Think | To think | Thinking | Thought | Thought |
Draw | To draw | Drawing | Drawn | Drew |
Run | To run | Running | Run | Ran |
Watch | To watch | Watching | Watch | Watched |
Remember!
1. Use the base form after modals, such as will, can or may.
Example:
1. If you come late again, she may not let you come in.
2. I think you should stay home and rest.
2. Use the infinitive form to show purpose.
Example:
1. They leave the house early to avoid bad traffic.
2. She wakes up early every morning to prepare breakfast for the family.;
3. Use the infinitive form after adjectives.
Example:
1. It’s dangerous to cross in the middle of the street.
2. He is too tired to walk.
4. Use the gerund form after prepositions.
Example:
1. Are the students interested in joining the competition?
2. My parents don’t like the idea of sending young children to study abroad.
5. Use the past participle after the forms of be (be, being, am, is, are, was, were, been) to express passive meaning, and after the forms of have (have, has, had) to express active meaning.
Example:
1. My brother has worked in a bank for ten years
2. The difficult assignment has been completed.
6. The simple past form is used with particular time markers. Below are some of them.
Three years ago, two months ago, five hours ago
Last month, last night, last decade
In 1990, in the 1980’s, in the eighteenth century
Yesterday
Example:
1. He took his family to New York
2. Five years ago they moved to Balik Papan.
Exercise 1
Directions: Put a check (V) beside correct sentences and an X beside incorrect sentences, and correct the mistakes.
1. ______ He is already two years old, but he still cannot to walk.
2. ______ He comes here working not to spend leisure time.
3. ______ Experts are sent to the tsunami-stricken province to rebuild the region.
4. ______ It’s easy to understand why he was angry.
5. ______ It’s wrong by lifting a cat by its ears and legs.
6. ______ Instead of study for his exam, he watched TV until late at night.
7. ______ The students had registering for classes before the semester started.
8. ______ My brother enjoyed the meal at the party last night.
9. ______ They move to Los Angeles
10. ______ He has been sick for four days. I think he must to see a doctor.
Exercise 2
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentences.
1. Before the 1900s, children _____ the yards of their homes and in the streets.
(A) playing alone in
(B) played in
(C) has played in
(D) they are playing
2.
3.
4.
5. Many critics of plea bargaining _____ allows large numbers of criminals to escape appropriate punishment.
(A) believed it
(B) believe it to
(C) believing that it
(D) believe it
6. To get an idea of soil’s porosity, _____ a small amount of top soil in your hand.
(A) to rub
(B) rubbing
(C) rubbed
(D) rub
7. The risks of developing cancer can _____ by not smoking and drinking in moderation.
(A) be significantly reduced
(B) to be significantly reduced
(C) significantly reduce
(D) to reduce significantly
8. Even though many couples _____ smaller families, the number of births could rise.
(A) now having
(B) now has
(C) are now having
(D) is now having
9. To make up for looses in revenue, bus companies _____ service and maintenance.
(A) cutting
(B) tends to cut
(C) tending to cut
(D) tend to cut
10. City planners in St. Paul ____ models for building compact towns and cities.
(A) proposing
(B) have proposed
(C) proposition
(D) proposal
11. Refrigeration _____ food spoilage by keeping temperatures near or below freezing.
(A) and the prevention of
(B) prevents
(C) preventing that
(D) is prevented from
12. Every year both large and small businesses _____ financial difficulties.
(A) that develop
(B) are developed
(C) they are developing
(D) develop
13. Why _____ to sell products consumers want in order to earn profit?
(A) companies have
(B) do companies have
(C) companies do have
(D) companies did have
Unit 2
Compound Sentences
While a simple sentence has a single main clause, a compound sentence has two or more main clauses joined by coordinate conjunctions. A main clause is an independent statement, and it does not function as a noun or a s a modifier. The information or ideas contained in the main clauses of a compound sentence are of equal importance.
Coordinate conjunctions:
and but so for or yet nor
Remember!
1. Use the conjunction and to express additional information, but or yet to connect contrasting ideas, and so to show result.
Example:
1. Anna studied hard for the exam, but she failed
2. Haries studied hard, so he passed.
3. Beni is a very lazy student, and he always comes late to class.
2. Use the conjunction for to express a reason, and or to show the result of a condition not fulfilled.
Example:
1. Santi did not talk to Arief, for she was angry.
2. You will report to the police or you will be accused of being an accomplice.
Exercise 1
Directions: Put a check (V) beside correct sentences and an X beside incorrect sentences, and correct the mistakes.
1. _____ We will have to cancel the plan, or we have no money to carry it out.
2. _____ I don’t feel like going to Dina’s party, for I don’t like parties.
3. _____ Many people want to pay in installments, but I prefer to pay in cash. but
4. _____ She is very intelligent, but she is suited for the job. so
5. _____ We will not rent the house, and the rent is very high. for
6. _____ Miss Bullock will have to do the job, for she will be fired. but
7. _____ My sister is a senior high student, so my brother is a college student. and
8. _____ Rano doesn’t like Tiwi, so he invited her to his wedding reception.
9. _____ Maria will stay or I will leave. and
10.____ The environmental balance should be maintained, for many life forms will be endangered. so
Exercise 2
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentences.
1. Bears cannot see well _____ small eyes.
A. bears have
B. because having
C. because they have
D. because of bears
2. _____ at the Isthmus of Panama, so animals were able to migrate between North and South America .
A. A land bridge existed
B. When a land bridge existed
C. A land bridge
D. With a land bridge
3. _____ of the Pueblo Indians centered on intensive agriculture.
A. The economic activity
B. Because the economic activity
C. The economic was active
D. When the economis activity
4. _____ almost 274 square miles, but 96 percent of the park is under water.
A. Although Biscayne National Park
B. Biscayne National Park
C. Biscayne National Park
D. Biscayne National Park
5. Because a family of birds set up housekeeping in Joel Chandler Harris’s mailbox when the birds were in need of a place to stay, ____ the Wren’s Nest.
A. the home was named
B. so the home was named
C. naming the home
D. the home’s name
Unit 3
Complex Sentences
Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses
A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more dependent clauses. A dependent clause has its own subject and verb, but it cannot stand by itself because the information in the clause is subordinate or additional to that of the main clause. To connect a dependent clause, subordinators are used. In relation to the main clause, a dependent clause may function as an adjective, adverb or noun, and so the clause is named after its function.
A. Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun, referred to as the antecedent and it is connected to the main clause using a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
Relative Pronoun | Relative Adverb |
Who, that, whom, which, whose | Where, when, why |
Examples:
Anybody who has no ticket may not enter the stadium.
I like the book which you gave me as a birthday present.
The town where I grew up is very far from here.
Remember!
1. Use the relative pronoun who or that to modify a person as a subject and whom to modify a person as an object in the adjective clause.
2. Use the relative pronoun which or that to modify a thing, either as a subject or an object in the adjective clause.
3. Use the relative adverbs where to relate to a place, when to a time expression and why to reason.
Exercise 1
Directions: Circle the relative pronouns and underline the nouns modified. Then indicate that the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I) and revise the incorrect ones.
1. _____ In the bank I met a woman who kept staring at me suspiciously.
2. _____ Jodi wants to buy the car whom he saw at the exhibition yesterday.
3. _____ The plane crash that happened last week took hundreds of lives.
4. _____ The football match whom many people expected to watch was delayed due to bad weather.
5. _____ The reason why she did not come to your party is that she was busy finishing her final paper.
6. _____ A market is a place when buyers and sellers meet for business dealings.
7. _____ Rani was admitted in a German University
8. _____ My father took me to a museum when he showed me a very rare species of flower.
9. _____ I borrowed a book who was recommended by Professor Anthony.
10. _____ Reza, who you have trusted all these years, has not been acting in good faith.
B. Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective or adverb in the main clause. The relationship of the information in an adverb clause to that in the main clause is shown by a subordinate conjunction that can indicate time, location, reason, contrast, comparison, condition, result, purpose, and manner. An adverb clause may come at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the sentence. A comma is needed when the clause is placed at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
Subordinate Conjunctions for Adverb Clauses
When, before, after, whenever, as long as, since, whether,
as, until, if, while, as if, as though, whereas, although,
though, even if, so that, so … that, such … that, until, etc
Remember!
1. Use correct subordinate conjunctions.
2. Avoid using because of or due to in introducing an adverb clause of reason.
3. When the conjunction comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle of the sentence.
Example:
Anita wants to see you before she leaves tomorrow morning.
The match was canceled because it rained heavily.
As Mona has to finish her paper, she will not go to the party.
Exercise 2
Directions: Circle the conjunctions and indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I). Then revise the incorrect sentences.
1. _____ After the plane circled the airport, it landed on the main runway.
2. _____ The registration process took many hours since the lines so long.
3. _____ This type of medicine can be helpful, it can also have some bad side effects.
4. _____ The waves were amazingly high when the storm hit the coastal town.
5. _____ We need to get a new car whether is on sale or not.
6. _____ Just as the bread came out of the oven, while a wonderful aroma filled the kitchen.
7. _____ Everyone has spent time unpacking boxes since the family moved into the new house.
8. _____ Although the area is a desert many plants bloom there in the springtime.
9. _____ The drivers on the freeway drove slowly and carefully while the rain was falling heavily because they did not want to have an accident.
10. _____ If you plan carefully before you take a trip, will have much better time because the small details will not cause problems.
C. Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a dependent clause that substitutes a noun in the main clause, functioning as a subject, subject complement (after a linking verb), object of a preposition, or appositive. A noun clause is introduced by an introductory word, depending on the type of sentence the clause is derived from.
Introductory Words
That, if, whether, what, where, which, whose, why, when, how
Example:
The teacher knew that the students had finished their homework.
That he enjoys cooking very much is not a secret anymore.
I couldn’t decide which shirt I wanted to buy.
Remember!
1. Make sure that the word order of the noun clause is correct.
2. Use correct introductory words for noun clause.
3. Some introductory words might become subjects as well in the noun clauses.
Exercise 3
Directions: Underline the introductory words to noun clauses and indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I), then revise the mistakes.
1. _______ It is unfortunate that the meal is not ready yet.
2. _______ She told me when should pick her up.
3. _______ The instructor explained where was the computer lab located.
4. _______ We could not believe what he did to us.
5. _______ Do you want to know if it going to rain tomorrow?
6. _______ We never know whether we will get paid or not.
7. _______ This evening you can decide what do you want to do?
8. _______ The manager explained how wanted the work done.
9. _______ The map showed where the party would be held?
10. _______ Can you tell me why was the mail not delivered today?
Exercise 4
Directions: Underline the introductory words to noun clauses and indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I), then revise the mistakes.
1. _______ The teacher heard who answered the question.
2. _______ I do not understand what it went wrong.
3. _______ Of the three movies, I can’t decide which is the best.
4. _______ She did not remember of the building who in the class at that time.
5. _______ No one is sure what did it happen in front of the building.
6. _______ We found out which was her favorite type of candy.
7. _______ Do you know what caused the plants to die?
8. _______ I am not sure which is the most important course in the program?
9. _______ We thought about who would be the best vice president.
10. _______ She saw what in the box in the closet.
Unit 4
Reduced Clauses
Adjective, adverb and noun clauses can be reduced to phrases by deleting certain elements of the clauses.
A. Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause can be reduced to a phrase when the subject of the clause is the antecedent. A reduced adjective clause usually comes right after the antecedent. An adjective clause can be reduced to a phrase by:
1. Omitting the relative pronoun and the main verb be
Example:
2. Omitting the relative pronoun and changing the main verb into a present participle to express active meaning or into a past participle to express passive meaning.
Example:
The book that was left on the table belongs to my brother. (Complete adjective clause)
The book left on the table belongs to my brother. (Reduced)
She teaches all the children who are now playing in the garden. (Complete adjective clause)
She teaches all the children now playing in the garden.
3. Omitting the relative pronoun and changing the main verb into an infinitive phrase
Example:
The next step which we can do is implementing the new policy. (Complete adjective clause)
The next step to do is implementing the new policy. (Reduced)
B. Reduced Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause can be reduced to an adverbial phrase when the subject of the clause is also the subject of the main clause.
Remember!
1. The position of reduced adverb clause can be at the beginning, or at the end of the sentence, or after the subject, depending on the focus.
2. But adverb clauses of places are usually not reduced.
3. Subordinate conjunctions of reduced adverb clauses are usually omitted
The reduction is done by:
1. Omitting the subject and the main verb be
Example:
While he was in college, he lost both his parents in a car accident. (Complete adverb clause)
While in college, he lost both his parents in a car accident. (Reduced)
2. Omitting the subject and changing the main verb into present participle to express active meaning or into past participle to express passive meaning.
Example:
They haven’t spoken a word since they left the party. (Complete adverb clause)
They haven’t spoken a word since leaving the party.(Reduced)
Once he was convinced, he took the necessary steps. (Complete adverb clause)
Once convinced, he took the necessary steps. (Reduced)
C. Reduced Noun Clauses
A noun clause derived from a WH question can be reduced to a phrase by omitting the subject and changing the main verb into an infinitive.
Example:
I have forgotten which road I should take. (Complete noun clause)
I have forgotten which road to take. (Reduced)
They could not decide where they should put the furniture. (Complete noun clause)
They could not decide where to put the furniture. (Reduced)
Exercise 1
Directions: Underline the introductory words to noun clauses and indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I), then revise the mistakes.
1. _____ When placing in the dark, plants will not produce flowers.
2. _____ Sitting in the audience, the artist was speechless when the MC called his name.
3. _____ Having married late, my father was forty when I was born.
4. _____ Rudi always pretends to be surprised whenever scolding.
5. _____ The passengers taken Garuda Indonesia
6. _____ I will tell you how to do in such an emergency situation.
7. _____ Before realizing he couldn’t do it, he asked for help.
8. _____ The new waiter needed training in why to serve properly.
9. _____ The food, when arranged on a plate, should be attractive.
10. _____ Although taking a physical exam, the applicants must return the completed medical form.
Exercise 2
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentences.
1.Dolphins and whales are mammals that _____ lives in water.
A. spend they entire
B. their entire
C. spend there entirely
D. spending their entire
2. ______ a wrong number, it is important to apologize before hanging up.
a. You dial
b. If dials
c. If dialing, you
d. If you dial
3. The study of etymology rests upon basic principles _____ to all languages.
a. that applying
b. that they apply
c. that apply
d. applied that
4. Juries determine facts from what is said and from the manner _____
a. which is said in
b. which said it in
c. in which it is said
d. which said it
5. No one knows when or why Monet abondoned his largest canvas, of which ____
a. only the survival of fragments
b. only fragments survive
c. only fragments survive
d. survived only as fragments
6. Evening programs have been opened for people ______ during the day.
a. whom work
b. who work
c. who works
d. which work
7. Congress, acting on the recommendations of special subcommittees, decides how much money _____ on education.
a. the government which is spending
b. the government will spend
c. will the government spend
d. the spending of the government
8. Colonists who came to America created schools similar to those ____ in Europe
a. they had known
b. had they known
c. which had known
d. that had known
9. The thirteen colonies stretched from _____ Maine to Georgia
a. that is now
b. what is now
c. now that is what
d. is that what
REVIEW EXERCISE
Directions: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentences.
1. _____ is famous as the home of the United States Naval Academy
E. Annapolis
F. Because of Annapolis
G. Why Annapolis
H. Because Annapolis
2. Some scientists think __________ be a planet but a moon of Neptune .
A. that Pluto does not seem
B. not Pluto
C. Pluto that might not
D. that Pluto might not
3. With _____ of sophisticated oil lamps, elaborate tools were made to cut the wicks.
A. appeared
B. the appearance
C. the appearance was
D. it appeared
4. Fort Union was the site of what _________ principal fur-trading post on the upper Missouri River .
A. the
B. being the
C. was the
D. it was the
5. Since __________ commercial risk, it has to appeal to a large audience to justify its cost.
A. the face of the movies
B. moving faces
C. a movie faces
D. to face a movie
6. A current of water known as the Gulf Stream comes up from the Gulf of Mexico, and then ________ the North Atlantic toward Europe .
A. it crosses
B. crossing
C. with its crosses
D. crosses it
7. Systems _______ the two symbols 0 and 1 are called binary number systems.
A. use
B. they use
C. uses
D. using
8. Genes, ________ the blueprints for cell construction, exist in tightly organized packages called chromosomes.
A. are
B. they are
C. which
D. which are
9. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of gases _________ in place around the Earth by the gravitational pull of the planet.
A. held
B. hold
C. it holds
D. the hold
10. Oscar Hammerstein collaborated with a number of composers including Jerome Kern, whom __________ in writing the musical Show Boat.
A. joined
B. was joined
C. he joined
D. joining
Unit 5
Comparison
Comparisons indicate degrees of difference with adjective and adverbs, and may be equal or unequal.
A. Equal Comparisons
An equal comparison indicates that the two entities are (or are not, if negative) exactly the same. The following rule generally applies to this type of comparison.
Subject + verb + as + (adjective/adverb) + as + (noun/pronoun) |
Example:
My book is as interesting as yours. (adjective)
His car runs as fast as a race car. (adverb)
John sings as well as his sister. (adverb)
His job is not as difficult as mine. (adjective)
In correct English, the subject form of the pronoun will always be used after as.
Example:
Peter is as tall as I.
You are as old as she.
The same idea can also be conveyed in another way.
Subject + verb + the same + (noun) + as + (noun/pronoun) |
Example:
My house is the same height as his.
Be sure you know the following adjectives and their corresponding nouns.
Adjectives | Nouns |
Heavy, light Wide, narrow Deep, shallow Long, short Big, small | Weight Width Depth Length Size |
B. Unequal Comparison
This type of comparative implies that the entities are comparable in a greater or lesser degree. The following rules generally apply to this type of comparison.
1. Add –er to the adjective base of most one-and two-syllable adjectives. (tall – taller, thick – thicker, cold – colder)
2. Use the form more + adjective for most three-syllable adjectives, (more beautiful, more important, more believable)
3. Use the form more + adjective for adjectives ending in the following suffixes: -ed, --ful, -ing, -ish, and –ous. (more hated, more stylish, more cautious)
4. Double the final consonant of one-syllable adjectives which end in a single consonant (except w, x, and z) and are preceded by a single vowel. (big – bigger, red – redder, hot – hotter)
5. When an adjective ends in a consonant + y, change the y to I and add er. (happy – happier, dry – drier)
6. Remember always to use the subject form of the pronoun after than.
Example:
John’s grades are higher than his sister’s. (adjective)
He speaks Spanish more fluently than I. (adverb)
Today is hotter than yesterday. (adjective)
Nouns can also be used in comparisons. Be sure to use the determiners correctly depending on whether the adjectives are countable or non count.
Subject + verb + as + (many/much/little/few) + noun + as + (noun/pronoun) |
Subject + verb + (more/fewer/less) + noun + than + (noun/pronoun) |
Example:
I have more books than she.
February has fewer days than March.
Before payday, I have as little money as my brother.
C. Illogical Comparisons
An illogical comparison is one in which unlike entities have been compared. Be sure that the items being compared are the same. These forms can be divided into three categories: possessives, that of, and those of.
Example:
Incorrect : The salary of a professor is higher than a secretary.
Correct : The salary of a professor is higher than that of a secretary.
Incorrect : His drawings are as perfect as his instructor.
Correct : His drawings are as perfect as his instructor’s.
D. Multiple Number Comparatives
Number multiples can include: half, twice, three times, four times, etc. Study the following rule.
Subject + verb + number multiple + as + (much/many) + noun + as (noun/pronoun) |
Example:
This encyclopedia costs twice as much as the other one.
Budi has half as many records now as I had last year.
At Pangandaran beach, Rudi ate three times as many oysters as Joko.
E. Double Comparatives
These sentences begin with a comparative construction, and thus the second clause must also begin with a comparative.
The + comparative + subject + verb + the + comparative + subject + verb |
The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel.
The higher we flew, the worse Santi felt.
The sooner you take medicine, the better you will feel.
F. Positives, Comparatives, and Superlatives
Most descriptive adjectives have three forms: the positive (happy), the comparative (happier), and the superlative (happiest).
The positive shows no comparison. It describes only the simple quality of a person, thing, or group.
· The house is big.
· The flowers are fragrant.
The comparative involves two entities and shows a greater or lesser degree of differences between them.
· My dog is smarter than yours.
· Bob is more athletic than Deni.
In the superlative degree, three or more entities are compared, one of which is superior or inferior to the others. The following rule applies.
· Dian is the shortest of the three sisters.
· John is the tallest in his class.
· These shoes are the least expensive of all.
Exercise 1
Directions: Select the correct form in parentheses in the following sentences.
1. Of the four dresses, I like the red one (better/best).
2. Safina is the (happier/happiest) person we know.
3. Sophie’s car is (faster/fastest) than Afif’s.
4. This is the (creamier/creamiest) ice cream I have had in a long time.
5. This poster is (colorful/more colorful) than the one in the hall.
6. Does Fred feel (good/better) today than he did yesterday?
7. This vegetable soup tastes very (good/well).
8. While trying to balance the baskets on her head, the woman walked (awkward/more awkwardly) than her daughter
9. Jane is the (less/least) athletic of all the women.
10. My cat is the (prettier/prettiest) of the two.
11. This summary is (the better/the best) of the pair.
12. Your heritage is different (from/than) mine.
13. This painting is (less impressive/least impressive) than the one in the other gallery
14. The colder the weather gets, (sicker/the sicker) I feel.
15. A mink coat costs (twice more than/twice as much as) a sable coat.
16. Jim has as (little/few) opportunities to play tennis as I.
17. That recipe calls for (many/much) sugar than mine does.
18. The museum is the (farther/farthest) away of the three buildings.
19. No sooner had he received the letter (when/than) he called Maria.
20. George Washington is (famous/ more famous) than George Bloomey.
Exercise 2
In each of the following sentences, choose the letter of the equative, comparative, or superlative that is incorrect. Then, correct the error.
1. Rice is more important than met in many the countries with the highest populations in the world.
2. Cats are more independent as dogs, but they are not as loyal as dogs are.
3. My car is as fast as yours, but yours is more beautiful than mine.
4. Winter is colder in Montana that it is in Vermont ; winter in Alaska is the coldest in the United States
5. The most difficult part of the exam was given at the end when everyone was the most exhaustedest.
6. The more easily understood alphabet in the world is also one of the oldest.
Exercise 3
On the line provided, put an I if the sentence is incorrect and a C if the sentence is correct. Then, correct each error.
_____ 1. This cake is the sweeter I have ever eaten.
_____ 2. The books that I am reading for history class are the most interesting by far
than the one’s I’m reading for science.
_____ 3. We bought the heavier coats that we could find.
_____ 4. I would like to read as short as article of them all.
_____ 5. Mabel wanted to buy Victor the better new watch she could find.
_____ 6. This record album is not as interesting as the one you gave me to listen to
last week.
_____ 7. My brother is the taller person in our family.
_____ 8. Greg’s understanding of computers is better than mine.
_____ 9. The color that absorbs sunlight the more easily of all is black.
_____ 10. This stereo is the most expensive of the two that we have looked at today.
jawabannya diisi sekalian brooo hehehe
BalasHapus